now for an incredible change of pace
from the previous talk so right yeah
I’ve already introduced me and so the
topic today I’m gonna start out by
mentioning the recent Nobel Prize in
Chemistry for 2017 so what you see here
is an improvement in the ability to
image biomolecules with a transmission
electron microscope so this kind of
technology is so hard so hard to come up
with and so important that doe Boucher
Frank and Henderson won the Nobel Prize
and that image in this press release you
can find on the Nobel Prize website and
this cryo-electron microscopy improves
the imaging of biomolecules and you’ll
see why I mentioned that is we go
through to the end of the talk all right
so what do you need to understand when
you’re making electronics especially the
kind the silicon kind that you have in
your cell phone and your computer and
we’re used to or at least those that
work on it are used to thinking about
need to understand something about the
local atomic arrangement of atoms and so
the way that that’s been done is with
x-ray diffraction so we’ll talk about
that in a second but why do you care
about the atomic arrangement of atoms
well it impacts things that you use
every day and it changes the properties
let’s just look at carbon one element
from the periodic table and you arrange
it in a special crystal structure called
the literally called the diamond crystal
structure and you get it if you get a
enough diamond lattice
you know together you have a nice
diamond wear it on your engagement ring
or whatever you put it in a totally
different atomic arrangement and you get
graphite and you use graphite and lead
pencil what we used to call lead pencils
now are you can have it in the form of
soot all of those have totally different
functions so the our atomic arrangement
changes the materials properties so it’s
really important to know
what that atomic arrangement is and so
the way that people understood atomic
arrangements in fact the way that was
used to understand how DNA what the DNA
structure was was x-ray diffraction so
what’s x-ray diffraction well x-rays are
light very high-energy you put them
through a crystal and the crystal
structure the atomic arrangement to
fracks that those x-rays and you get us
getting a structure here and that’s this
periodic array of diffraction Peaks
changes with the periodic array of the
crystal that you’re trying to understand
so that’s how you can tell the
difference between those different
carbon structures that I just mentioned
so let’s look at something that’s been
locally here in Albany area my grad
student Avery Greene did this
high-resolution transmission electron
image of the crystal structure of this
business selenide crystal here so when
it’s kind of an interesting crystal so
let’s talk about that for a second so
you have these arrays of this a plane of
selenium and in purple as everyone knows
bismuth that’s purple so Jovie selenium
bismuth selenium bismuth selenium that’s
called a quintuple layer there’s five
layers of atoms and they bond to each
other very weakly it’s called the van
der Waals bond well you can see that
amazingly you can see these kinds of
atomic arrangements and a transmission
electron microscope when it’s a very
special one that has aberration
correction so you can see this dark line
here that’s what you find between these
quintuple layers you can see that the
selenium bismuth selenium bismuth
selenium the bismuth being the lighter
lighter atoms if you will in this image
and if you look at op down so that’s
sort of a if you’re looking at this
Chris structure or crystal structure or
look at the side if you look at top down
you can see a hexagonal pattern so you
can see the local atomic arrangement and
if you know enough about business
selenide it tells you something about
the functionality of bismuth selenide so
how does this impact what we’re doing in
electronics well the transistors in your
cell phone or your computer the heart of
those electronic chips the transistors
are getting smaller and smaller and you
probably have heard that so this is
taken from dick James silicon acha
column in solid-state technology you can
see constant shrinking from 22
nanometers 14 and 10 nanometers so 10
nanometers is a hundred angstroms if you
look at the distance between those two
fins and we’re gonna I’m gonna tell you
why that’s important in a second it’s
340 angstroms this is an incredibly
small how small the transistors are and
one of the things you gain with making
these transistors smaller as you can
pack more transistors into a smaller
area and that trans that microprocessor
can do more computing for you and
sometimes when you make them smaller in
fact most of the time they can get
faster so why do they call them fins so
instead of looking straight on at them
you look at them in this perspective you
can see that they look like a long shark
fin like structure and you can see that
often they’re patterned
in an array and that’s a PowerPoint
drawing if you will of what you’re
seeing right here and you’re seeing that
there’s two together in that particular
structure so people were imagining
something beyond just these fin
transistors that’s the thing in the
micro processors in your cell phone and
so forth they were thinking they could
make nano wires and so someone I know
well Brian core goal at University of
Texas who is making these nano wires of
germanium and they have a certain
crystal structure here he made them with
these little balls tiny little particles
of gold put them into his reactor and he
can grow these germanium wires on them
and another person Charles leaver at
Harvard make
his own semiconductor nanowires made a
transistor out of them so people thought
that this would be a great thing to do
15-20 years ago and the reason was is
because well it’s hard to explain
without going into a lot of electronics
but because this part of the transistor
was all the way around this wire you
should get a better performing
transistor alright
go forward to today what do we have so
people imagined that a nano wire might
be a great way to make a transistor in
the future and so today using that same
thin structure that you saw in you
overheads ago people have used that in a
lot of very difficult processing to make
transistor nano wires and so they’re
highly ordered here you can see the
order in that structure here and one
version has these 80 angstrom diameter
nano wires in it and that was done at
iMac in Belgium and locally here at IBM
they had a nano wire that has a more
oval shape like that called them nano
sheets so people have taken that idea
the idea that the transistor gate should
wrap all around the transistor the
channel or were that the electrons flow
through to make the transistor work
better now people are making it and
maybe after these research articles are
that you see here 2016-2017 very recent
maybe that’ll be the transistor of the
future it’s certainly under some strong
consideration alright so that gives you
another piece of information it takes a
long time to incubate ideas from a
research lab that’s not really working
in nano electronics and there are
thoughts of well maybe we can use that
in nano electronics to something that
could actually be used in real life
another idea people had was using
graphene remember you saw earlier in the
talk that the pencil the graphite and
the pencil use move it across the paper
and you leave behind the the lines that
you see those are little sheets of
graphene or single layers of carbon
atoms so here we have an image of the
hexagonal structure of graphene that’s
been quite famous recently graduate
student Florence Nelson who was a member
of my group she’s now well off quite
gainfully employed and wanted Robo at
Oak Ridge National Lab who took this
image on a very special transmission
electron microscope so that you know you
can see where the atoms are located in
that that’s a that’s an amazing
achievement if you ask me when you start
to put together structures that might be
using it some sort of wild future or
nano electronics you see this putting
the graphene between pieces of boron
nitride and you look at a cross-section
of that you see that’s where the
graphene is start to lose your ability
to see the individual structure so even
doing some amazing electron microscopy
and putting together a difficult
structure and this was done it Jim hones
group at Columbia and it was part of a
center called index which I happen to be
the director of he was working on this
interesting material set for possible
future nano electronics made with
graphene so that that’s in the you know
in the mix it’s a long way from being
realized and it’s very if you will very
speculative all right so people are
thinking about how to make electronics
different kinds of electronics the
graphene idea was a very different kind
of switch if you consider transistor to
beYOU switch so what happens if you take
the electronics that we have today and
you think about the fact that the way it
uses data is memory the memory of these
these computers and how it moves the
data around is very inefficient what
happens if you made it think like a
human does like your brain does so
professor Nate Katie who’s a professor
at SUNY Polytechnic Institute has been
working on this and
what he’s done is try to make some sort
of electronic structure from traditional
electronic profit you know processing
that you’d use in a in a factory that
makes silicon integrated circuits and
make that circuitry work like the neuron
in your brain and the reason the neurons
even though it works kind of slowly
compared to a transistor because it has
many interconnections it’s very
effective at what it does and it uses
very low power so they’re making
electronics that does this so-called
cognitive computing computing or
neuromorphic computing that is an
interesting idea and it’s very feasible
because you can use the manufacturing
capability you already have and so maybe
in a few years you’ll see this in fact
if you go on the websites of IBM or
Intel and you ask for search for a
neuromorphic computing or cognitive
computing you’ll probably confine some
interesting information there that’s
kind of cool
all right but what happens if silicon
nano electronics is replaced by some
sort of biologically based nano
electronics and why would you even think
about that and so I recall the time that
Jack Kilby one of the two people that
invented the integrated circuit came to
visit where I used to work and he said
you know back when I invented that there
were you know old-fashioned large power
transistors and all the companies that
made those power transistors went by the
wayside
after the integrated circuit companies
came into came into existence and
started making a lot of integrated
circuits and eventually replaced in in
many applications the power transistors
in many applications obviously they’re
still used in other applications but
that meant electronics is possible
because of those sorts of breakthroughs
so using Jack Kilby’s idea that you
might want to think about something
that’s really off-the-wall and will it
impact what you’re doing so what happens
if there’s biologically-based
electronics
not you know I’m sort of critical of
these ideas but they need to be
considered so before I get to an example
of something that’s really hard to
believe that was published in nature
this year first we’re gonna talk about
something that I know very little about
I am NOT a biologist so it’s really hard
for me to get into some of these ideas
but yet they’re there and because this
has a possibility I need to learn about
it so what’s it what’s a genome the
genome is you know your complete set of
DNA in one of the cells in your body and
they’re composed of chemical units that
are organized in a clear pattern and
once you have a pattern of stuff you can
code information in it and my goodness
encoding information is what nano
electronics is all about so what
happened this is an amazing paper it’s
just this really bizarre so someone took
a bacterias genomes and the genomes and
they encoded a digital movie or parts of
a digital movie in the genomes of a
bacterium
really wild why would you ever want to
do that but they did it and it’s there
and so this is an this is a look at an
image of a hand that was encoded in the
genomes of a certain bacteria there’s
this five five picture if you will movie
of a horse running that they encoded by
successively encoding each picture one
at a time into the bacteria that’s
really wild all right so first of all
that they could even do it as is amazing
but if you stand back and suppress your
amazement and say well what good is this
well other than then an interesting
breakthrough that you never you never
know what it’ll be useful in the future
or maybe spies can put you know
information in a bacteria and they know
pass it around and then someone can
decode it later
other than that kind of wild interesting
thought
why would this be very useful so you
know when you stream from the web or
whatever you’re gonna do a movie you
want if you’re the hundredth person to
look at that movie you want its fidelity
the quality of the movie to be exactly
the same as the first person and exactly
the same as the original that was stored
somewhere wherever you get the streaming
from well this kind of technology right
now doesn’t have that kind of very high
fidelity they talk about 90 percent in
this paper and this is really recent
stuff its 2017 so and Shipman’s getting
some shipment and coworkers are getting
some great notoriety for this so you
know will silicon nanoelectronics be
replaced by biologically based
electronics and how will they analyze or
image these things how are you gonna
know about the arrangement because when
you’re talking about making electronics
you’ve got to have enough of whatever
you’re storing the information in for it
to be useful and readable so you can get
the information out and you can do
computing with it well it turns out that
as I mentioned at the start if these
wild ideas that are out there ever
become useful it’s going to be really
hard to do quality control or even
research and development on them because
imaging organic molecules is really
tough stuff so here’s a here is a recent
paper a review of progress in imaging
organic molecules with transmission
electron microscopy and so you can see
what the atomic Arrangements might look
like here and zine rings oxygen nitrogen
hydrogen you can see here that it
doesn’t look anything like what you draw
in your PowerPoint drawing up here and
which is very different than for example
the single crystals I showed you at the
beginning of the talk and here’s a look
at the top of a carbon nanotube that’s
like graphene rolled up into a tube if
you will that it has been functionalized
it’s in various various molecules at the
top and they were bonded to this
nanotube and so there’s a look at some
sort of
functionalized top of a nanotube it’s
very hard to see it and here’s a look at
the side of a nanotube yeah it doesn’t
it doesn’t have the information quality
if you will that I’m used to in the work
that I do all right well this I
mentioned before that it’s possible the
image image these crystals because of
aberration correction image the atomic
order are much better with aberration
correction so what happens if you have a
carbon nanotube and you put some some
iodine and potassium in there potassium
iodide if you will and here without
aberration correction you don’t know
where it is inside this nanotube and
this is a different Cassie Amaya dye
crystal in here obvious guess obviously
I don’t know and you can see where the
heavy atoms are and the lighter atoms
are inside the carbon nanotube by using
a special kind of aberration correction
well what happens if you put an organic
molecule inside a carbon nanotube very
difficult to see it in the same way that
we’re seeing it right now so this is
gonna be a really difficult challenge
for those of us that are working in nano
electronics if this ever happens so I
think that’s one of the reasons that
it’s interesting to be critical about
this and yet if you look at funding
sources and people doing research always
got to look at the funding sources you
look at funding sources they’re funding
this kind of wild far-out research right
now so you’re working in this field you
at least need to know about it and pay
attention to it and that’s why I showed
this image from the 2017 Nobel Prize in
Chemistry showing that any advance in
imaging a biomolecule is important
enough and hard enough to win a Nobel
Prize
and so with that I thank you for
listening
from the previous talk so right yeah
I’ve already introduced me and so the
topic today I’m gonna start out by
mentioning the recent Nobel Prize in
Chemistry for 2017 so what you see here
is an improvement in the ability to
image biomolecules with a transmission
electron microscope so this kind of
technology is so hard so hard to come up
with and so important that doe Boucher
Frank and Henderson won the Nobel Prize
and that image in this press release you
can find on the Nobel Prize website and
this cryo-electron microscopy improves
the imaging of biomolecules and you’ll
see why I mentioned that is we go
through to the end of the talk all right
so what do you need to understand when
you’re making electronics especially the
kind the silicon kind that you have in
your cell phone and your computer and
we’re used to or at least those that
work on it are used to thinking about
need to understand something about the
local atomic arrangement of atoms and so
the way that that’s been done is with
x-ray diffraction so we’ll talk about
that in a second but why do you care
about the atomic arrangement of atoms
well it impacts things that you use
every day and it changes the properties
let’s just look at carbon one element
from the periodic table and you arrange
it in a special crystal structure called
the literally called the diamond crystal
structure and you get it if you get a
enough diamond lattice
you know together you have a nice
diamond wear it on your engagement ring
or whatever you put it in a totally
different atomic arrangement and you get
graphite and you use graphite and lead
pencil what we used to call lead pencils
now are you can have it in the form of
soot all of those have totally different
functions so the our atomic arrangement
changes the materials properties so it’s
really important to know
what that atomic arrangement is and so
the way that people understood atomic
arrangements in fact the way that was
used to understand how DNA what the DNA
structure was was x-ray diffraction so
what’s x-ray diffraction well x-rays are
light very high-energy you put them
through a crystal and the crystal
structure the atomic arrangement to
fracks that those x-rays and you get us
getting a structure here and that’s this
periodic array of diffraction Peaks
changes with the periodic array of the
crystal that you’re trying to understand
so that’s how you can tell the
difference between those different
carbon structures that I just mentioned
so let’s look at something that’s been
locally here in Albany area my grad
student Avery Greene did this
high-resolution transmission electron
image of the crystal structure of this
business selenide crystal here so when
it’s kind of an interesting crystal so
let’s talk about that for a second so
you have these arrays of this a plane of
selenium and in purple as everyone knows
bismuth that’s purple so Jovie selenium
bismuth selenium bismuth selenium that’s
called a quintuple layer there’s five
layers of atoms and they bond to each
other very weakly it’s called the van
der Waals bond well you can see that
amazingly you can see these kinds of
atomic arrangements and a transmission
electron microscope when it’s a very
special one that has aberration
correction so you can see this dark line
here that’s what you find between these
quintuple layers you can see that the
selenium bismuth selenium bismuth
selenium the bismuth being the lighter
lighter atoms if you will in this image
and if you look at op down so that’s
sort of a if you’re looking at this
Chris structure or crystal structure or
look at the side if you look at top down
you can see a hexagonal pattern so you
can see the local atomic arrangement and
if you know enough about business
selenide it tells you something about
the functionality of bismuth selenide so
how does this impact what we’re doing in
electronics well the transistors in your
cell phone or your computer the heart of
those electronic chips the transistors
are getting smaller and smaller and you
probably have heard that so this is
taken from dick James silicon acha
column in solid-state technology you can
see constant shrinking from 22
nanometers 14 and 10 nanometers so 10
nanometers is a hundred angstroms if you
look at the distance between those two
fins and we’re gonna I’m gonna tell you
why that’s important in a second it’s
340 angstroms this is an incredibly
small how small the transistors are and
one of the things you gain with making
these transistors smaller as you can
pack more transistors into a smaller
area and that trans that microprocessor
can do more computing for you and
sometimes when you make them smaller in
fact most of the time they can get
faster so why do they call them fins so
instead of looking straight on at them
you look at them in this perspective you
can see that they look like a long shark
fin like structure and you can see that
often they’re patterned
in an array and that’s a PowerPoint
drawing if you will of what you’re
seeing right here and you’re seeing that
there’s two together in that particular
structure so people were imagining
something beyond just these fin
transistors that’s the thing in the
micro processors in your cell phone and
so forth they were thinking they could
make nano wires and so someone I know
well Brian core goal at University of
Texas who is making these nano wires of
germanium and they have a certain
crystal structure here he made them with
these little balls tiny little particles
of gold put them into his reactor and he
can grow these germanium wires on them
and another person Charles leaver at
Harvard make
his own semiconductor nanowires made a
transistor out of them so people thought
that this would be a great thing to do
15-20 years ago and the reason was is
because well it’s hard to explain
without going into a lot of electronics
but because this part of the transistor
was all the way around this wire you
should get a better performing
transistor alright
go forward to today what do we have so
people imagined that a nano wire might
be a great way to make a transistor in
the future and so today using that same
thin structure that you saw in you
overheads ago people have used that in a
lot of very difficult processing to make
transistor nano wires and so they’re
highly ordered here you can see the
order in that structure here and one
version has these 80 angstrom diameter
nano wires in it and that was done at
iMac in Belgium and locally here at IBM
they had a nano wire that has a more
oval shape like that called them nano
sheets so people have taken that idea
the idea that the transistor gate should
wrap all around the transistor the
channel or were that the electrons flow
through to make the transistor work
better now people are making it and
maybe after these research articles are
that you see here 2016-2017 very recent
maybe that’ll be the transistor of the
future it’s certainly under some strong
consideration alright so that gives you
another piece of information it takes a
long time to incubate ideas from a
research lab that’s not really working
in nano electronics and there are
thoughts of well maybe we can use that
in nano electronics to something that
could actually be used in real life
another idea people had was using
graphene remember you saw earlier in the
talk that the pencil the graphite and
the pencil use move it across the paper
and you leave behind the the lines that
you see those are little sheets of
graphene or single layers of carbon
atoms so here we have an image of the
hexagonal structure of graphene that’s
been quite famous recently graduate
student Florence Nelson who was a member
of my group she’s now well off quite
gainfully employed and wanted Robo at
Oak Ridge National Lab who took this
image on a very special transmission
electron microscope so that you know you
can see where the atoms are located in
that that’s a that’s an amazing
achievement if you ask me when you start
to put together structures that might be
using it some sort of wild future or
nano electronics you see this putting
the graphene between pieces of boron
nitride and you look at a cross-section
of that you see that’s where the
graphene is start to lose your ability
to see the individual structure so even
doing some amazing electron microscopy
and putting together a difficult
structure and this was done it Jim hones
group at Columbia and it was part of a
center called index which I happen to be
the director of he was working on this
interesting material set for possible
future nano electronics made with
graphene so that that’s in the you know
in the mix it’s a long way from being
realized and it’s very if you will very
speculative all right so people are
thinking about how to make electronics
different kinds of electronics the
graphene idea was a very different kind
of switch if you consider transistor to
beYOU switch so what happens if you take
the electronics that we have today and
you think about the fact that the way it
uses data is memory the memory of these
these computers and how it moves the
data around is very inefficient what
happens if you made it think like a
human does like your brain does so
professor Nate Katie who’s a professor
at SUNY Polytechnic Institute has been
working on this and
what he’s done is try to make some sort
of electronic structure from traditional
electronic profit you know processing
that you’d use in a in a factory that
makes silicon integrated circuits and
make that circuitry work like the neuron
in your brain and the reason the neurons
even though it works kind of slowly
compared to a transistor because it has
many interconnections it’s very
effective at what it does and it uses
very low power so they’re making
electronics that does this so-called
cognitive computing computing or
neuromorphic computing that is an
interesting idea and it’s very feasible
because you can use the manufacturing
capability you already have and so maybe
in a few years you’ll see this in fact
if you go on the websites of IBM or
Intel and you ask for search for a
neuromorphic computing or cognitive
computing you’ll probably confine some
interesting information there that’s
kind of cool
all right but what happens if silicon
nano electronics is replaced by some
sort of biologically based nano
electronics and why would you even think
about that and so I recall the time that
Jack Kilby one of the two people that
invented the integrated circuit came to
visit where I used to work and he said
you know back when I invented that there
were you know old-fashioned large power
transistors and all the companies that
made those power transistors went by the
wayside
after the integrated circuit companies
came into came into existence and
started making a lot of integrated
circuits and eventually replaced in in
many applications the power transistors
in many applications obviously they’re
still used in other applications but
that meant electronics is possible
because of those sorts of breakthroughs
so using Jack Kilby’s idea that you
might want to think about something
that’s really off-the-wall and will it
impact what you’re doing so what happens
if there’s biologically-based
electronics
not you know I’m sort of critical of
these ideas but they need to be
considered so before I get to an example
of something that’s really hard to
believe that was published in nature
this year first we’re gonna talk about
something that I know very little about
I am NOT a biologist so it’s really hard
for me to get into some of these ideas
but yet they’re there and because this
has a possibility I need to learn about
it so what’s it what’s a genome the
genome is you know your complete set of
DNA in one of the cells in your body and
they’re composed of chemical units that
are organized in a clear pattern and
once you have a pattern of stuff you can
code information in it and my goodness
encoding information is what nano
electronics is all about so what
happened this is an amazing paper it’s
just this really bizarre so someone took
a bacterias genomes and the genomes and
they encoded a digital movie or parts of
a digital movie in the genomes of a
bacterium
really wild why would you ever want to
do that but they did it and it’s there
and so this is an this is a look at an
image of a hand that was encoded in the
genomes of a certain bacteria there’s
this five five picture if you will movie
of a horse running that they encoded by
successively encoding each picture one
at a time into the bacteria that’s
really wild all right so first of all
that they could even do it as is amazing
but if you stand back and suppress your
amazement and say well what good is this
well other than then an interesting
breakthrough that you never you never
know what it’ll be useful in the future
or maybe spies can put you know
information in a bacteria and they know
pass it around and then someone can
decode it later
other than that kind of wild interesting
thought
why would this be very useful so you
know when you stream from the web or
whatever you’re gonna do a movie you
want if you’re the hundredth person to
look at that movie you want its fidelity
the quality of the movie to be exactly
the same as the first person and exactly
the same as the original that was stored
somewhere wherever you get the streaming
from well this kind of technology right
now doesn’t have that kind of very high
fidelity they talk about 90 percent in
this paper and this is really recent
stuff its 2017 so and Shipman’s getting
some shipment and coworkers are getting
some great notoriety for this so you
know will silicon nanoelectronics be
replaced by biologically based
electronics and how will they analyze or
image these things how are you gonna
know about the arrangement because when
you’re talking about making electronics
you’ve got to have enough of whatever
you’re storing the information in for it
to be useful and readable so you can get
the information out and you can do
computing with it well it turns out that
as I mentioned at the start if these
wild ideas that are out there ever
become useful it’s going to be really
hard to do quality control or even
research and development on them because
imaging organic molecules is really
tough stuff so here’s a here is a recent
paper a review of progress in imaging
organic molecules with transmission
electron microscopy and so you can see
what the atomic Arrangements might look
like here and zine rings oxygen nitrogen
hydrogen you can see here that it
doesn’t look anything like what you draw
in your PowerPoint drawing up here and
which is very different than for example
the single crystals I showed you at the
beginning of the talk and here’s a look
at the top of a carbon nanotube that’s
like graphene rolled up into a tube if
you will that it has been functionalized
it’s in various various molecules at the
top and they were bonded to this
nanotube and so there’s a look at some
sort of
functionalized top of a nanotube it’s
very hard to see it and here’s a look at
the side of a nanotube yeah it doesn’t
it doesn’t have the information quality
if you will that I’m used to in the work
that I do all right well this I
mentioned before that it’s possible the
image image these crystals because of
aberration correction image the atomic
order are much better with aberration
correction so what happens if you have a
carbon nanotube and you put some some
iodine and potassium in there potassium
iodide if you will and here without
aberration correction you don’t know
where it is inside this nanotube and
this is a different Cassie Amaya dye
crystal in here obvious guess obviously
I don’t know and you can see where the
heavy atoms are and the lighter atoms
are inside the carbon nanotube by using
a special kind of aberration correction
well what happens if you put an organic
molecule inside a carbon nanotube very
difficult to see it in the same way that
we’re seeing it right now so this is
gonna be a really difficult challenge
for those of us that are working in nano
electronics if this ever happens so I
think that’s one of the reasons that
it’s interesting to be critical about
this and yet if you look at funding
sources and people doing research always
got to look at the funding sources you
look at funding sources they’re funding
this kind of wild far-out research right
now so you’re working in this field you
at least need to know about it and pay
attention to it and that’s why I showed
this image from the 2017 Nobel Prize in
Chemistry showing that any advance in
imaging a biomolecule is important
enough and hard enough to win a Nobel
Prize
and so with that I thank you for
listening
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